Ⅰ 國際貿易畢業論文參考文獻
e-國際貿易與企業實施問題的分析 姚鍾華 張濤 文獻來自:經濟問題 2004年 第08期
跨國經營企業國際市場進入方式選擇的影響因素研究 宋亞輝 郭繼鳴 李勝歌 文獻來自:河北工業大學學報 2004年 第06期
跨國公司無國籍化的發展趨勢及其政策含義 邱巍 巫寧耕 文獻來自:經濟科學 2001年 第02期.
東亞跨國公司的競爭優勢 吳先明 文獻來自:世界經濟文匯 2002年 第04期
淺析中國企業跨國經營的國際競爭力 蔡筱霞 文獻來自:林業財務與會計 2004年 第08期
論中國企業跨國並購 武勇 譚力文 文獻來自:經濟問題探索 2004年 第08期
有關跨國公司與國際技術轉移的理論分析 王學鴻 文獻來自:寧德師專學報(哲學社會科學版) 2000年 第03期
中國企業跨國並購的動因——兼談鄧寧國際生產折衷理論在發展中國家跨國並購中的適用性 李金環 文獻來自:黑龍江對外經貿 2004年 第09期
現代西方跨國公司理論的發展 林丹明 文獻來自:南開管理評論 1997年 第02期
風險感知與國際市場進入戰略決策的互動研究——兼論中國企業跨國經營的風險防範 許暉 文獻來自:經濟問題探索 2004年 第10期
創國際名牌做跨國企業 肖瑩 文獻來自:中國紡織報 2006年
國際貿易發展趨勢與我國企業的策略 王方 全偉 文獻來自:國際經貿探索 2002年 第01期
國際貿易中企業國際營銷戰略階段研究及中國企業國際營銷戰略的演變
徐頔 林媛 楊翠平 文獻來自:財經界(下半月) 2007年 第02期
跨國零售集團采購會:國際貿易方式的創新 汪素芹 文獻來自:國際貿易問題 2002年 第11期
我國跨國經營企業實施國際稅收籌劃策略分析 楊惠芳 文獻來自:國際貿易問題 2003年 第08期
巧用國際資本 加快我國企業跨國經營 張菁 文獻來自:冶金財會 1996年 第04期
我國企業海外投資戰略淺談
張凌 2002 （頁數: 3） 中文期刊
經濟前沿
中國跨國企業的形成與發展特徵
史彧 2002 （頁數: 3） 中文期刊
黑龍江對外經貿
跨國企業並購與中國企業的對策
何茂青 2001 （頁數: 2） 中文期刊
中國信息導報
國際灰市場對跨國經營企業的經濟影響分析
周宏 1996 （頁數: 7） 中文期刊
北方工業大學學報
跨國並購的盈利可能性:對稱與非對稱兩種情況的分析
胡峰 華東理工大學學報(社會科學版) 2003/01
經濟全球化背景下我國參與國際競爭對策研究
杜建耀 改革與戰略 2003/10
Ⅱ 國際貿易類的英文文獻翻譯成中文,有沒有人能幫忙的非常急!
你得破點財了
如果你要求不高的話,我隨便幫你做了,但質量不保證
Ⅲ 急需國際貿易論文參考文獻
我的是畢業論文參考文獻 很有用
《國際服務貿易》 李小牧
電子工業出版社
《國際服務貿易：自由化與規則》
何茂春
世界知識出版社
《國際服務貿易》
程憲 程大中
高等教育出版社
《世界貿易組織與中國對外貿易研究》
王文舉 安廣實 經濟日報出版社
《國際服務貿易》
汪素芹
機械工業出版社
《聯合國國際貨物買賣合同公約》
《國際貿易理論與實務》賈建華
首都經濟貿易大學出版社
《國際服務貿易發展趨勢及動因分析》 劉紹堅
《國際服務貿易》
張漢林
對外經濟貿易大學
《服務業跨國轉移的趨勢、影響及對策》 王子先，王雪坤，杜娟.
《國際服務貿易》 饒友玲
對外經濟貿易大學
《國際服務貿易》 程憲
立信會計出版社
《國際服務貿易》 劉東升 中國金融出版社
國家統計局 （www.stats.gov.cn）
《GENERAL AGREEMENT ON TRADE IN SERVICES》
WTO.International Trade Statistics. 2000
Ⅳ 求國際貿易類 英文文獻及翻譯一篇,5000字左右
一、電子商務對國際貿易的影響1
（一） 電子商務的內涵與特點1
（二） 電子商務對國際貿易的影響6
二、中國發展電子商務的現狀及存在的問題11
（一）我國電子商務的發展現狀11
（二） 存在的問題12
（三） 中國對外貿易的重新定位15
三、中國利用電子商務促進對外貿易的策略17
（一） 電子商務在出口貿易中的效益體現17
（二）開拓新的國際市場要求發展無紙貿易17
（三）迎接挑戰的對策19
結論23
致謝24
參考文獻25
附錄一26
附錄二31
摘 要
在向信息經濟世界的轉變過程中，傳統商務由於存在太多的弊端，已經不能勝任現時條件下的貿易環境。電子商務作為網際網路技術發展日益成熟的直接結果，是未來商業發展的新方向。
電子商務（Electronic Commence）是一種以電子數據交換EDI和Internet網上交易為主要內容的全新商務模式。其體現的開放性、全球性、地域性、低成本和高效率等內在特徵，在符合商業經濟內在要求的同時，還使其超越了作為一種新的貿易形式所具有的價值。它不僅改變了企業本身的生產、經營、管理，而且對傳統的貿易方式帶來沖擊。其最明顯的標志就是增加了貿易機會、降低貿易成本、提高貿易效益。在帶動經濟結構變革的同時，對整個現代經濟生活產生了巨大而且深遠的影響。
對此，中國作為經濟正在發展的貿易大國，在電子商務的挑戰之下，要同時面對其帶來的壓力和機遇，進行自我調整，以求跟上其快速變革的步伐。要大力發展電子商務，在今後的貿易競爭中占據主動，應拿出自己的舉措，以贏得和發達國家站在同一起跑線上的機會。
關鍵詞 電子商務 數據交換 網際網路 國際貿易
Abstract
In the shifting to information economy, traditional commerce is out of the steps of time because of its lot shortcomings. As the direct result from the development of cyber internet technology, EC (Electronic Commerce) is the new direction of future business.
EC includes EDI (Electronic Data Interchange) and business on web. It is a definitely new business model. Its inner nature such as global, regional, low cost and high efficiency make it more valuable than its virtual value as a new business model. At the same time, it is also accord with demands from business. EC not only changes procing, management, but impact on traditional commerce model. The most obvious symbol is increase business opportunities, decrease of trading cost, and getting more business profits. It leads profound affection to the whole economic life when it changes economic structure.
China wants to be a great developing trading nation. It is necessary to act activity. We need making strategy to face EC, to face the impact, the pressure and chances in order to control our foreign business policies.
Justify by us in order to follow EC steps in developing. That is the right way for us to challenge with other developed countries.
Key word Electronic Commerce Electronic Data Interchange Internet
International trading
（三）中國對外貿易的重新定位
中國的貿易必須在世界貿易從傳統貿易向國際網路貿易轉化中重新為自己定位，就是使中國貿易從傳統貿易轉化為網路貿易。為此，我們要積極推進中國貿易從傳統貿易向國際網路貿易的革命性的轉化，這一推進要通過市場與政府有效結合的方式來進行。值得指出的是，中國已經初步地「嘗到了網路貿易的甜頭」，1998年1~5月份，中國的出口本來應該受亞洲貨幣金融危機的影響而有較大幅度的下降，但是，1998年1~5月份中國的外貿進出口卻保持著增長，據海關統計，1998年1~5月份，中國外貿進出口總值達1 236.9億美元，比去年同期增長5.4%，其中出口711.1億美元，增長8.6%，進口525.8%億美元，增長1.5%，其中一個重要的決定因素就是，中國在1998年的春季廣交會上，利用互聯網向全球2 000多家外商發出了電子郵件，這使得在東南亞金融危機後的這次廣交會的出席人數達6.5萬人，為歷年廣交會人數最多的一次。在這次廣交會上，中國同東南亞和韓國達成的交易額下降了60%，而同歐洲、美洲、中東、非洲的交易額則增長20%~30%。佔中國出口四成的本次廣交會出口成交額比上年增長10%以上。據海關統計，1998年1~4月份，中國對亞洲出口增長4.8%，對亞洲出口的比重比去年同期下降了4.6%，而對歐洲、美國、非洲、南美的出口卻分別增長了29.6%、22.7%、33.9%、40.1%，它們佔中國外貿出口的比重也有一定幅度的增加，很顯然，中國外貿的這一變化是與對國際互聯網電子郵件利用密切相關的。中國外經貿部宣布「中國商品市場」已於1998年7月8日正式進入網際網路，它將成為目前網際網路上最大的中國商品資料庫，向外商展示中國商品信息，這為許多企業進入網路，提供了新機會。這一「中國商品市場」就利用網路發布信息這一形式而言，與中國已有的在網路上建立站點發布信息的企業一樣。很明顯，對於它們都有或將有從發布信息，深化到銷售產品和以網路為基礎的企業業務往來、企業間培訓、客戶培訓、售後服務等商務活動的必要。這也是應該挖掘網路收益的一個取向，既要利用網路來捕捉更多的貿易機會，擴大市場的范圍，又要通過網路來使得比較優勢和競爭優勢升級。另外，一定要注意網路安全問題。還有，也是至關重要的，中國應對網路貿易立法，且對已存在的對外貿易法進行修改。有理由相信，隨著中國外貿逐步地從傳統貿易轉化為網路貿易，中國網路貿易的發展必然使中國的貿易呈現出一種新的局面.
英文是:
With economic development and the progress of the times, people of the original concept of marriage constantly being challenged, while the concept of legal system is further strengthened. Due to various reasons, divorce cases each year are on the rise, the husband and wife in a divorce case and deal with common property that has become increasingly difficult, reflected by the status of more and more important, it has a bearing on social stability and unity, and economic construction can proceed smoothly. Debt Settlement of joint processing and housing is dealt with divorce, division of property compared the two main issues, the 2001 Marriage Law, promulgated and implemented the new sound of the old Marriage Law of the many deficiencies, but its institutional division of property in a divorce there are still some shortcomings. Therefore, the perfect family property system and properly handle the divorce, division of matrimonial property has strong practical significance.
Ⅳ 要寫畢業論文的關於國際貿易的外文翻譯，誰能幫我下載份純英文文獻！！求 謝謝！！
童鞋你好！
這個估計需要自己搜索了！
網上基本很難找到免費給你服務的！
我在這里給你點搜索國際上常用的外文資料庫：
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❶ISI web of knowledge Engineering Village2
❷Elsevier SDOL資料庫 IEEE/IEE(IEL)
❸EBSCOhost RSC英國皇家化學學會
❹ACM美國計算機學會 ASCE美國土木工程師學會
❺Springer電子期刊 WorldSciNet電子期刊全文庫
❻Nature周刊 NetLibrary電子圖書
❼ProQuest學位論文全文資料庫
❽國道外文專題資料庫 CALIS西文期刊目次資料庫
❾推薦使用ISI web of knowledge Engineering Village2
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中文翻譯得自己做了，實在不成就谷歌翻譯。
弄完之後，自己閱讀幾遍弄順了就成啦！
學校以及老師都不會看這個東西的！
外文翻譯不是論文的主要內容！
所以，很容易過去的！
祝你好運！
Ⅵ 求關於國際貿易英文文獻（急急急）在線等候
淺探當代國際貿易新理論對我國對外貿易戰略的啟示
在我國對外貿易規模不斷擴大的今天，要想提高我國的國際競爭力，必須重視國際上20世紀70年代以後興起的國際貿易新理論，實施創新的對外貿易戰略，打造具有國際競爭優勢的產業。本文通過研究當代國際貿易理論的新發展對我國外貿發展的啟示，分析探討了我國應該如何制定相應的政策，採取相應的對策來促進我國對外貿易的發展。
一、當代國際貿易理論的新進展
二戰後隨著科學技術的進步和生產力的不斷發展，國際貿易的規模、商品結構和地區分布也發生了很大變化。經濟學家在國際貿易理論研究中不斷探索，20世紀70年代以來先後出現的影響較大的國際貿易新理論有以下幾種：
1、戰略性貿易政策理論
戰略性貿易政策理論產生於2O世紀7O年代以來「新貿易保護主義」盛行的背景之下，由美國經濟學家保羅·克魯格曼等人於2O世紀8O年代中期提出，主要內容包括兩方面：（1）以內部規模經濟為基礎的利潤轉移理論；（2）以外部規模經濟為基礎的外部經濟理論。
2、產業內貿易理論
20世紀70年代格魯貝爾和勞埃德等人開創了產業內貿易理論研究，到20世紀80年代初美國經濟學家克魯格曼進一步推動了這一理論的發展。該理論不同於側重論述產業間貿易的傳統貿易理論，代寫畢業論文它側重研究貿易雙方在同一產業中既出口又進口同類異質產品的產業內貿易。在不完全競爭產業中，規模經濟和產品差異是產業內貿易形成的決定因素。
3、產品生命周期理論
產品生命周期理論由美國銷售學家弗農於1966年首先提出，經威爾斯、赫希哲等人不斷完善。產品生命周期理論認為，由於技術創新和擴散，製成品和生物一樣具有生命周期。產品生命周期包括五個階段：(1)新生期；(2)成長期；(3)成熟期；(4)銷售下降期；(5)讓與期。
4、國家競爭優勢理論
20世紀80年代以來，美國哈佛大學的邁克爾·波特提出並完善了國家競爭優勢理論。國家競爭優勢理論與傳統比較優勢理論和要素稟賦理論不同之處在於，該理論認為一個國家之所以能夠興旺發達，其根本原因在於該國的國際競爭優勢，這種競爭優勢源於一個相互增強的系統，在這個系統中，有四個關鍵因素影響一國在國際市場上建立和保持競爭優勢的能力，這四個因素是：(1)生產要素；(2)國內需求；(3)相關產業；(4)企業戰略、組織和競爭度。
二、當代國際貿易新理論對我國對外貿易戰略的啟示
1、積極轉化國家的競爭優勢
比較優勢是由一國資源稟賦和交易條件所決定的靜態優勢，是獲取競爭優勢的條件。競爭優勢則是一種將潛在優勢轉化為現實優勢的綜合能力的作用結果。比較優勢作為一種潛在優勢，只有最終轉化為競爭優勢，才能形成真正的出口競爭力。根據生產要素稟賦，我國一直以來具有勞動力資源的比較優勢，但是，在當今國際市場上勞動密集型產品的比較優勢並不一定具有國際競爭優勢。要確立把比較優勢轉換為競爭優勢的外貿戰略。
2、高新技術產業發展至關重要
由國際產品生命周期理論可以推知：創新國是國際貿易利益的最大獲益者。這是因為：在產品的新生期和成長期，創新國以其技術優勢壟斷了國內和國際市場，因而可以獲得大量超額壟斷利潤；在產品的成熟期進入所謂的「大規模生產」階段，創新國可以獲得巨額規模經濟效益；在產品的銷售下降期和讓與期，創新國在國外投資建廠，輸出其知識產權和品牌，延長其產品的生命周期，在國際市場上繼續賺取利潤。
3、發展高層次產業內貿易是提高對外貿易競爭力的重要手段
隨著國際經濟貿易的發展，產業內貿易在給各貿易國帶來貿易利益的同時，
Probe into New Theory of International Trade Implications of China Foreign Trade Strategy
Growing scale of foreign trade in China today, in order to enhance China's international competitiveness, must pay attention to the international community 70 years after the 20th century Xingqi new theory of international trade, the implementation of the Duiwaimaoyi innovation strategy, create an international competitive advantage in the instry. This paper studies the contemporary new development of international trade theory enlightenment for the development of China's foreign trade, analysis of how China should formulate corresponding policies and take corresponding measures to promote the development of China's foreign trade.
First, the contemporary theory of international trade, new progress
After World War II with the scientific and technological progress and proctivity of the continuous development of international trade size, structure and regional distribution of goods, great changes have taken place. Theory of international trade economist and continuously explore the 20th century, has emerged since the 70's influential new theory of international trade, the following:
1, Strategic Trade Policy
Strategic trade policy arise from 7O 2O century since the "new trade protectionism," the prevalence of background, the U.S. economist Paul Krugman, who in the mid 8O 2O century, proposed, mainly including two aspects : (1) internal economies of scale-based theory of profit transfer; (2) based on external economies of scale external economic theory.
2, intra-instry trade theory
20th century 70s Grubel and Lloyd, who created the instry trade theory, to the early 20th century U.S. economist Paul Krugman of 80 to further promote the development of this theory. The theory is different from the focus on inter-instry trade paper the traditional trade theory, on behalf of my thesis research is focused on trade, both sides in the same instry, the export of procts they import the same heterogeneous instry trade. Not perfectly competitive instries, economies of scale and proct differentiation is the formation of intra-instry trade determinants.
3, the proct life cycle theory
Proct life cycle theory Sales Vernon by the United States first proposed in 1966 by Prince, He Xizhe and others improved. Proct life cycle theory, as technological innovation and diffusion, and biological procts, like life-cycle. Proct life cycle consists of five stages: (1) Neonatal; (2) growth stage; (3) maturity; (4) decline of sales; (5) for and on.
4, Competitive Advantage of Nations
Since the 80s of the 20th century, Harvard's Michael Porter and improve the Competitive Advantage of Nations. Competitive Advantage of Nations and the traditional theory of comparative advantage and factor endowments theory of difference is, the theory that a country has been able to flourish, and the fundamental reason is the country's international competitive advantage, this competitive advantage derived from a mutually reinforcing system, in this system, there are four key factors that affect a country in the international market, establish and maintain a competitive edge in the ability of these four factors are: (1) factors of proction; (2) domestic demand; (3) related instries ; (4) business strategy, organizational and competitive degree.
Second, the contemporary theory of international trade on China's foreign trade strategy for new inspiration
1, the positive transformation of the national competitive advantage
Comparative advantage in natural resources by a country and trading conditions determine the static strengths are the conditions for competitive advantage. Competitive advantage is a way to advantage the potential into real ability to effect the comprehensive results. Comparative advantage as a potential advantage, only the final into a competitive advantage, to form a real export competitiveness. According to the proction factor endowment, along with China's comparative advantage in labor resources, but in today's international market, the comparative advantage of labor-intensive procts do not necessarily have an international competitive advantage. To establish the comparative advantages into competitive advantages in foreign trade strategy.
2, high-tech instries vital to the development
By the international proct life cycle theory can be deced: Innovation is the international trade interests of the country's biggest winners. This is because: the proct of Neonatal and growth, innovation and technical superiority of its state monopoly of domestic and international markets, and thus get a lot of excess monopoly profits; in proct maturity into the so-called "mass proction" stage, innovation States can get huge economies of scale; in proct sales were down period and give and of innovation invest and build factories in foreign countries, the output of its intellectual property and brand to extend its proct life Zhou Qi, in the international market continue to make a profit.
3, the development of high-level intra-instry trade is to improve the competitiveness of an important means of foreign trade
With the international economic and trade development, intra-instry trade in all trading nations to bring trade interests,
翻譯為：
Ⅶ 急求國貿專業論文英文參考文獻，我的題目是：我國對外貿易現狀及研究對策
感覺相關的就行吧,這是我今天剛交老師的
Solidarity trade
The current fair trade movement was shaped in Europe in the 1960s. Fair trade ring that period was often seen as a political gesture against neo-imperialism: radical student movements began targeting multinational corporations and concerns that traditional business models were fundamentally flawed started to emerge. The slogan at the time, 「Trade not Aid」, gained international recognition in 1968 when it was adopted by the UNCTAD (United Nations Conference on Trade and Development) to put the emphasis on the establishment of fair trade relations with the developing world.
The year 1965 saw the creation of the first Alternative Trading Organization (ATO): that year, British NGO Oxfam launched "Helping-by-Selling", a program which sold imported handicrafts in Oxfam stores in the UK and from mail-order catalogues.
In 1969, the first Worldshop opened its doors in the Netherlands. The initiative aimed at bringing the principles of fair trade to the retail sector by selling almost exclusively goods proced under fair trade terms in 「underdeveloped regions」. The first shop was run by volunteers and was so successful that dozens of similar shops soon went into business in the Benelux countries, Germany, and in other Western European countries.
Throughout the 1960s and 1970s, important segments of the fair trade movement worked to find markets for procts from countries that were excluded from the mainstream trading channels for political reasons. Thousands of volunteers sold coffee from Angola and Nicaragua in Worldshops, in the back of churches, from their homes, and from stands in public places, using the procts as a vehicle to deliver their message: give disadvantaged procers in developing countries a fair chance on the world』s market, and support their self-determined sustainable development. The alternative trade movement blossomed, if not in sales, then at least in terms of dozens of ATOs being established on both sides of the Atlantic, of scores of Worldshops being set up, and of well-organized actions and campaigns attacking exploitation and foreign domination, and promoting the ideals of Nelson Mandela, Julius Nyerere, and the Nicaraguan Sandinistas: the right to independence and self-determination, to equitable access to the world』s markets and consumers.
團結貿易
現今公平貿易運動形塑於1960年代的歐洲，公平貿易於這時期通常被視為一種反抗新帝國主義的政治姿態，基進的學生運動開始關注跨國公司，並出現了一種認為傳統商業模式基本上是有缺陷的共識，那時的口號「貿易，而非援助」(Trade not Aid)，被1968年所召開的聯合國貿易及發展會議（United Nations Conference on Trade and Development，簡稱UNCTAD）所採用，並得到國際認同，會議中強調與發展中世界建立公平的貿易關系。
1965年誕生了第一個另類貿易組織（Alternative Trading Organization，簡稱ATD）：那年，英國的非政府組織樂施會(Oxfam)發起了」以銷售來幫忙」(Helping-by-Selling)的活動，一個以郵購及在樂施會商店銷售進口手工藝品的計劃。
1969年，第一個「世界商店」在荷蘭開張，這個開創性的構想，是以銷售符合公平貿易規則的「發展中區域」的產品，將公平貿易的法則帶入零售部門，第一個商店由志工營運，非常成功，之後數十個類似的商店開始在比利時、荷蘭、盧森堡及德國等其他西歐國家開始營業。
在1960和1970年代，公平貿易運動里很重要的部份是，為那些因為政治因素而被排斥於主流貿易管道的國家，協助他們的產品尋找市場。數千名志工在教會後面和世界商店銷售來自安哥拉及尼加拉瓜的咖啡豆，以這些產品從家裡和公共場所的攤位傳達一個訊息：給那些來自發展中國家的弱勢生產者一個公平的機會，就是支持他們自主的永續發展。另類貿易活動的盛行，若不從貿易量來說，至少以在數量上，有數十個另類貿易組織（ATO）在大西洋兩岸成立，同時隨著世界商店的擴張，有許多計劃性的行動與專案，抨擊國際間的剝削與支配的現象，宣揚著曼德拉、朱利葉斯•尼雷爾及尼加拉瓜桑定政權的理念：自主及獨立的權利，與接觸全球市場及消費者的公平管道。
Ⅷ 求2~3篇的關於國際貿易的英文文章~~謝謝
International trade is the exchange of capital, goods and services across international boundaries or territories.[1] In most countries, it represents a significant share of GDP. While international trade has been present throughout much of history (see Silk Road, Amber Road), its economic, social, and political importance has been on the rise in recent centuries. Instrialization, advanced transportation, globalization, multinational corporations, and outsourcing are all having a major impact on the international trade system. Increasing international trade is crucial to the continuance of globalization. International trade is a major source of economic revenue for any nation that is considered a world power. Without international trade, nations would be limited to the goods and services proced within their own borders.
International trade is in principle not different from domestic trade as the motivation and the behavior of parties involved in a trade does not change fundamentally depending on whether trade is across a border or not. The main difference is that international trade is typically more costly than domestic trade. The reason is that a border typically imposes additional costs such as tariffs, time costs e to border delays and costs associated with country differences such as language, the legal system or a different culture.
Another difference between domestic and international trade is that factors of proction such as capital and labor are typically more mobile within a country than across countries. Thus international trade is mostly restricted to trade in goods and services, and only to a lesser extent to trade in capital, labor or other factors of proction. Then trade in good and services can serve as a substitute for trade in factors of proction. Instead of importing the factor of proction a country can import goods that make intensive use of the factor of proction and are thus embodying the respective factor. An example is the import of labor-intensive goods by the United States from China. Instead of importing Chinese labor the United States is importing goods from China that were proced with Chinese labor.
International trade is also a branch of economics, which, together with international finance, forms the larger branch of international economics.
Models
Several different models have been proposed to predict patterns of trade and to analyze the effects of trade policies such as tariffs.
[edit] Ricardian model
Main article: Ricardian model
The Ricardian model focuses on comparative advantage and is perhaps the most important concept in international trade theory. In a Ricardian model, countries specialize in procing what they proce best. Unlike other models, the Ricardian framework predicts that countries will fully specialize instead of procing a broad array of goods. Also, the Ricardian model does not directly consider factor endowments, such as the relative amounts of labor and capital within a country.
[edit] Heckscher-Ohlin model
Main article: Heckscher-Ohlin model
The Heckscher-Ohlin model was proced as an alternative to the Ricardian model of basic comparative advantage. Despite its greater complexity it did not prove much more accurate in its predictions. However from a theoretical point of view it did provide an elegant solution by incorporating the neoclassical price mechanism into international trade theory.
The theory argues that the pattern of international trade is determined by differences in factor endowments. It predicts that countries will export those goods that make intensive use of locally abundant factors and will import goods that make intensive use of factors that are locally scarce. Empirical problems with the H-O model, known as the Leontief paradox, were exposed in empirical tests by Wassily Leontief who found that the United States tended to export labor intensive goods despite having a capital abundance.
[edit] Specific factors model
In this model, labour mobility between instries is possible while capital is immobile between instries in the short-run. Thus, this model can be interpreted as a 'short run' version of the Heckscher-Ohlin model. The specific factors name refers to the given that in the short-run specific factors of proction, such as physical capital, are not easily transferable between instries. The theory suggests that if there is an increase in the price of a good, the owners of the factor of proction specific to that good will profit in real terms. Additionally, owners of opposing specific factors of proction (i.e. labour and capital) are likely to have opposing agendas when lobbying for controls over immigration of labour. Conversely, both owners of capital and labour profit in real terms from an increase in the capital endowment. This model is ideal for particular instries. This model is ideal for understanding income distribution but awkward for discussing the pattern of trade!
[edit] New Trade Theory
Main article: New Trade Theory
New Trade theory tries to explain several facts about trade, which the two main models above have difficulty with. These include the fact that most trade is between countries with similar factor endowment and proctivity levels, and the large amount of multinational proction (ie foreign direct investment) which exists. In one example of this framework, the economy exhibits monopolistic competition, and increasing returns to scale.
[edit] Gravity model
Main article: Gravity model of trade
The Gravity model of trade presents a more empirical analysis of trading patterns rather than the more theoretical models discussed above. The gravity model, in its basic form, predicts trade based on the distance between countries and the interaction of the countries' economic sizes. The model mimics the Newtonian law of gravity which also considers distance and physical size between two objects. The model has been proven to be empirically strong through econometric analysis. Other factors such as income level, diplomatic relationships between countries, and trade policies are also included in expanded versions of the model.
[edit] Regulation of international trade
Traditionally trade was regulated through bilateral treaties between two nations. For centuries under the belief in Mercantilism most nations had high tariffs and many restrictions on international trade. In the 19th century, especially in Britain, a belief in free trade became paramount. This belief became the dominant thinking among western nations since then despite the acknowledgement that adoption of the policy coincided with the general decline of Great Britain. In the years since the Second World War, controversial multilateral treaties like the GATT and World Trade Organization have attempted to create a globally regulated trade structure. These trade agreements have often resulted in protest and discontent with claims of unfair trade that is not mutually beneficial.
Free trade is usually most strongly supported by the most economically powerful nations, though they often engage in selective protectionism for those instries which are strategically important such as the protective tariffs applied to agriculture by the United States and Europe. The Netherlands and the United Kingdom were both strong advocates of free trade when they were economically dominant, today the United States, the United Kingdom, Australia and Japan are its greatest proponents. However, many other countries (such as India, China and Russia) are increasingly becoming advocates of free trade as they become more economically powerful themselves. As tariff levels fall there is also an increasing willingness to negotiate non tariff measures, including foreign direct investment, procurement and trade facilitation. The latter looks at the transaction cost associated with meeting trade and customs proceres.
Traditionally agricultural interests are usually in favour of free trade while manufacturing sectors often support protectionism. This has changed somewhat in recent years, however. In fact, agricultural lobbies, particularly in the United States, Europe and Japan, are chiefly responsible for particular rules in the major international trade treaties which allow for more protectionist measures in agriculture than for most other goods and services.
During recessions there is often strong domestic pressure to increase tariffs to protect domestic instries. This occurred around the world ring the Great Depression. Many economists have attempted to portray tariffs as the underlining reason behind the collapse in world trade that many believe seriously deepened the depression.
The regulation of international trade is done through the World Trade Organization at the global level, and through several other regional arrangements such as MERCOSUR in South America, NAFTA between the United States, Canada and Mexico, and the European Union between 27 independent states. The 2005 Buenos Aires talks on the planned establishment of the Free Trade Area of the Americas (FTAA) failed largely e to opposition from the populations of Latin American nations. Similar agreements such as the MAI (Multilateral Agreement on Investment) have also failed in recent years.
[edit] Risks in international trade
The risks that exist in international trade can be divided into two major groups
Ⅸ 高分求國貿專業論文英文參考文獻
1. Risk-Based Capital Standards and the Riskiness of Bank Portfolios: Credit and Factor Risks [5.317%]
Steven R. Grenadier & Brian J. Hall
1995 Downloadable (with restrictions)! Bank risk-based capital (RBC) standards require banks to hold differing amounts of capital for different classes of assets, based almost entirely on a credit risk criterion. The paper provides both a theoretical and empirical framework for evaluating such standards. A model outlining a pricing methodology for loans subject to default risk is presented. The model shows that the returns on such loans are affected by the complicated interaction of the likelihood of default, the consequences of default, term structure variables, and the pricing of factor risks in the economy. When we examine whether the risk weights accurately reflect bank asset risk, we find that the weights fail even in their limited goal of correctly quantifying credit risk. For example, our findings indicate that the RBC weights overpenalize home mortgages, which have an average credit loss of 13 basis points, relative to commercial and consumer loans. The RBC rules also contain a significant bias agains
2. Pricing Derivatives on Financial Securities Subject to Credit Risk [5.058%]
Jarrow, Robert A & Turnbull, Stuart M
Downloadable (with restrictions)! Author(s): Jarrow, Robert A & Turnbull, Stuart M. 1995 Abstract: This article provides a new methodology for pricing and hedging derivative securities involving credit risk. Two types of credit risks are considered. The first is where the asset underlying the derivative security may default. The second is where the writer of the derivative security may default. The authors apply the foreign currency analogy of R. Jarrow and S. Turnbull (1991) to decompose the dollar payoff from a risky security into a certain payoff and a 'spot exchange rate.' Arbitrage-free valuation techniques are then employed. This methodology can be applied to corporate debt and over the counter derivatives, such as swaps and caps. Copyright 1995 by American Finance Association.
3. The nature of credit risk in project finance [5.057%]
Marco Sorge
Downloadable ! Author(s): Marco Sorge. 2004 Abstract: In project finance, credit risk tends to be relatively high at project inception and to diminish over the life of the project. Hence, longer-maturity loans would be cheaper than shorter-term credits.
4. Valuation of Credit Risk in Agricultural Mortgages [5.056%]
Sherrick, Bruce J & Barry, Peter J & Ellinger, Paul N
2000 Downloadable (with restrictions)! A credit-risk valuation model is developed and empirically implemented to estimate the cost of loss distributions across a broad set of loan-level and pool-level characteristics is used to assess insuring against credit risks in pools of agricultural mortgage loans. Probabilistic information about insurance valuation and solvency likelihood. The effects on the value of credit-risk insurance of pool size, dectibles, timing alterations, premium loadings, adverse loan selection, and changing underwriting standards are also estimated. Results indicate that actuarial insurance costs are initially highly sensitive and then become relatively insensitive as pool size increases. Copyright 2000 by American Agricultural Economics Association
5. Could Regional and Cantonal Banks Rece Credit Risk through National Diversification? [5.055%]
Bertrand Rime
2007 Downloadable! This paper evaluates the rection of credit risk that can be achieved in Switzerland by a national diversification of bank lending. Using a credit risk model based on corporate default rates, I find that the risk of a nationally diversified loan portfolio is up to 20% smaller than the sum of the risks of regional portfolios. From a financial stability perspective, this substantial risk diversification potential should motivate particular scrutiny on the more than hundred Swiss banks staying on the regional business model.
6. The Credit Risk Transfer Market and Stability Implications for U.K. Financial Institutions [5.052%]
Li L. Ong & Jorge A. Chan-Lau
Downloadable ! Author(s): Li L. Ong & Jorge A. Chan-Lau. 2006 Abstract: The increasing ability to trade credit risk in financial markets has facilitated its dispersion across the financial and other sectors. However, specific risks attached to credit risk transfer (CRT) instruments in a market with still-limited liquidity means that its rapid expansion may actually pose problems for financial sector stability in the event of a major negative shock to credit markets. This paper attempts to quantify the exposure of major U.K. financial groups to credit derivatives, by applying a vector autoregression (VAR) model to publicly available market prices. Our results indicate that use of credit derivatives does not pose a substantial threat to financial sector stability in the United Kingdom. Exposures across major financial institutions appear sufficiently diversified to limit the impact of any shock to the market, while major insurance companies are largely exposed to the
7. Ratings versus equity-based credit risk modelling: an empirical analysis [5.052%]
Pamela Nickell & William Perraudin & Simone Varotto
Downloadable ! Author(s): Pamela Nickell & William Perraudin & Simone Varotto. Abstract: Banks have recently developed new techniques for gauging the credit risk associated with portfolios of illiquid, defaultable instruments. These techniques could revolutionise banks' management of credit risk and could in the longer term serve as a more risk-sensitive basis for calculating regulatory capital on banks' loan books than the current 8% capital charge. In this paper, examples are implemented of the two main types of credit risk model developed so far: ratings-based and equity-based approaches. Using price data on large eurobond portfolios, the paper assesses, on an out-of-sample basis, how well these models track the risks they claim to measure.
8. Comparing mortgage credit risk policies : an options-based approach [5.050%]
Buckley, Robert & Karaguishiyeva, Gulmira & Van Order, Robert & Vecvagare, Laura
Downloadable ! Author(s): Buckley, Robert & Karaguishiyeva, Gulmira & Van Order, Robert & Vecvagare, Laura. 2003 Abstract: Buckley, Karaguishiyeva,Van Order, and Vecvagare analyze the structure of approaches to mortgage credit risk that are now being used in a number of OECD and transition economies. The authors'basic approach is to show how option pricing models can help measure and evaluate the risks of various schemes. They find that mortgage default insurance can be a cost-effective tool for both improving housing affordability and efficiently addressing some of the rationing that characterizes this market. When correctly structured, as it is in a number of transition and market countries, this kind of program can be expected to rece nonprice rationing at an actuarially fair price. At the same time, considerable care must be exercised in the development of such instruments. Geographical risk diversification, particularly across borders, can play a major role in the success of these programs.
9. Quadratic Portfolio Credit Risk models with Shot-noise Effects [5.049%]
Gaspar, Raquel M. & Schmidt, Thorsten
2005 Downloadable!<BR> We propose a reced form model for default that allows us to derive closed-form solutions to all the key ingredients in credit risk modeling: risk-free bond prices, defaultable bond prices (with and without stochastic recovery) and probabilities of survival. We show that all these quantities can be represented in general exponential quadratic forms, despite the fact that the intensity is allowed to jump procing shot-noise effects. In addition, we show how to price defaultable digital puts, CDSs and options on defaultable bonds. Further on, we study a model for portfolio credit risk where we consider both firm specific and systematic risks. The model generalizes the attempt from Duffie and Garleanu (2001). We find that the model proces realistic default correlation and clustering of defaults. Then, we show how to price first-to-default swaps, CDOs, and draw the link to currently proposed credit indices.
10. Macro stress testing with a macroeconomic credit risk model for Finland [5.049%]
Virolainen , Kimmo
Downloadable ! Author(s): Virolainen , Kimmo. 2004 Abstract: In the discussion paper, we employ data on instry-specific corporate sector bankruptcies over the time period from 1986 to 2003 and estimate a macroeconomic credit risk model for the Finnish corporate sector. The sample period includes a severe recession with significantly higher-than-average default rates in the early 1990s. The results suggest a significant relationship between corporate sector default rates and key macroeconomic factors including GDP, interest rates and corporate indebtedness. The estimated model is employed to analyse corporate credit risks conditional on current macroeconomic conditions. Furthermore, the paper presents some examples of applying the model to macro stress testing, ie analysing the effects of various adverse macroeconomic events on the banks』 credit risks stemming from the corporate sector. The results of the stress tests suggest that Finnish corporate sector credit risks are fairly limited in the current macr
Ⅹ 求一篇有國際貿易類的英文文獻
What Is International Trade?
If you walk into a supermarket and are able to buy South American bananas, Brazilian coffee and a bottle of South African wine, you are experiencing the effects of international trade.
International trade allows us to expand our markets for both goods and services that otherwise may not have been available to us. It is the reason why you can pick between a Japanese, German and American car. As a result of international trade, the market contains greater competition and therefore more competitive prices, which bring a cheaper proct home to the consumer.
What Is International Trade?
International trade is the exchange of goods and services between countries. This type of trade gives rise to a world economy, in which prices, or supply and demand, affect and are affected by global events. Political change in Asia, for example, could result in an increase in the cost of labor, thereby increasing the manufacturing costs for an American sneaker company based in Malaysia, which would then result in an increase in the price that you have to pay to buy the tennis shoes at your local mall. A decrease in the cost of labor, on the other hand, would result in you having to pay less for your new shoes.
Trading globally gives consumers and countries the opportunity to be exposed to goods and services not available in their own countries. Almost every kind of proct can be found on the international market: food, clothes, spare parts, oil, jewelry, wine, stocks, currencies and water. Services are also traded: tourism, banking, consulting and transportation. A proct that is sold to the global market is an export, and a proct that is bought from the global market is an import. Imports and exports are accounted for in a country's current account in the balance of payments. (For more on this, see the articles What Is The Balance Of Payments? and Understanding The Current Account In The Balance Of Payments.)
Increased Efficiency of Trading Globally
Global trade allows wealthy countries to use their resources - whether labor, technology or capital - more efficiently. Because countries are endowed with different assets and natural resources (land, labor, capital and technology), some countries may proce the same good more efficiently and therefore sell it more cheaply than other countries. If a country cannot efficiently proce an item, it can obtain the item by trading with another country that can. This is known as specialization in international trade.
Let's take a simple example. Country A and Country B both proce cotton sweaters and wine. Country A proces 10 sweaters and six bottles of wine a year while Country B proces six sweaters and 10 bottles of wine a year. Both can proce a total of 16 units. Country A, however, takes three hours to proce the 10 sweaters and two hours to proce the six bottles of wine (total of five hours). Country B, on the other hand, takes one hour to proce 10 sweaters and three hours to proce six bottles of wine (total of four hours).
But these two countries realize that they could proce more by focusing on those procts with which they have a comparative advantage. Country A then begins to proce only wine and Country B proces only cotton sweaters. Each country can now create a specialized output of 20 units per year and trade equal proportions of both procts. As such, each country now has access to 20 units of both procts.
We can see then that for both countries, the opportunity cost of procing both procts is greater than the cost of specializing. More specifically, for each country, the opportunity cost of procing 16 units of both sweaters and wine is 20 units of both procts (after trading). Specialization reces their opportunity cost and therefore maximizes their efficiency in acquiring the goods they need. With the greater supply, the price of each proct would decrease, thus giving an advantage to the end consumer as well.
Note that, in the example above, Country B could proce both wine and cotton more efficiently than Country A (less time). This is called an absolute advantage, and Country B may have it because of a higher level of technology. However, according to international trade theory, even if a country has an absolute advantage over another, it can still benefit from specialization. (For a review of some of these economic concepts, see the Economics Basics tutorial.)
Other Possible Benefits of Trading Globally
International trade not only results in increased efficiency but also allows countries to participate in a global economy, encouraging the opportunity of foreign direct investment (FDI), which is the amount of money that indivials invest into foreign companies and other assets. In theory, economies can therefore grow more efficiently and can more easily become competitive economic participants.
For the receiving government, FDI is a means by which foreign currency and expertise can enter the country. These raise employment levels and, theoretically, lead to a growth in the gross domestic proct. For the investor, FDI offers company expansion and growth, which means higher revenues.
Free Trade vs. Protectionism
As with other theories, there are opposing views. International trade has two contrasting views regarding the level of control placed on trade: free trade and protectionism. Free trade is the simpler of the two theories: a laissez-faire approach, with no restrictions on trade. The main idea is that supply and demand factors, operating on a global scale, will ensure that proction happens efficiently. Therefore, nothing needs to be done to protect or promote trade and growth because market forces will do so automatically.
In contrast, protectionism holds that regulation of international trade is important to ensure that markets function properly. Advocates of this theory believe that market inefficiencies may hamper the benefits of international trade and they aim to guide the market accordingly. Protectionism exists in many different forms, but the most common are tariffs, subsidies and quotas. These strategies attempt to correct any inefficiency in the international market.
Conclusion
As it opens up the opportunity for specialization and therefore more efficient use of resources, international trade has potential to maximize a country's capacity to proce and acquire goods. Opponents of global free trade have argued, however, that international trade still allows for inefficiencies that leave developing nations compromised. What is certain is that the global economy is in a state of continual change and, as it develops, so too must all of its participants.
如果你走進超市，並能買到南美香蕉，巴西咖啡和一瓶南非葡萄酒，您所遇到的影響國際貿易。
國際貿易使我們能夠擴大我們的市場，商品和服務，否則可能沒有提供給我們。這就是為什麼您可以挑選之間日語，德語和美國車。由於國際貿易，市場包含更大的競爭，因此更具有競爭力的價格，由此帶來更便宜的產品提供給消費者。
什麼是國際貿易？
國際貿易是交流之間的貨物和服務的國家。這種類型的貿易引起了世界經濟，在這種價格或供應和需求，影響和影響的全球性活動。政治變化，例如，亞洲可能會導致成本增加的勞動力，從而增加了生產成本為美國的耐克公司總部設在馬來西亞，然後導致價格上升，你不得不花錢購買在網球鞋在您當地的商場。在減少的勞動力成本，另一方面，將導致您不需要支付較少為您的新鞋。
貿易在全球范圍和國家為消費者提供的機會接觸到商品和服務不提供在自己的國家。幾乎每一種產品可以在國際市場：食品，衣服，零件，石油，珠寶，葡萄酒，股票，貨幣和水。服務也是交易：旅遊，金融，咨詢和運輸。產品銷往全球市場的出口，和一種產品，是購買的全球市場是一個進口。進口和出口都是以一國的經常賬戶的國際收支。 （欲了解更多關於這個，請參閱文章什麼是國際收支平衡？和了解目前帳戶收支平衡。 ）
提高效率，在全球范圍內的交易
全球貿易允許富裕國家利用它們的資源-無論是勞動，技術或資本-更有效率。由於國家賦予了不同的資產和自然資源（土地，勞動力，資本和技術），一些國家可能產生同樣的好，因此更有效地銷售更便宜比其他國家。如果一個國家不能有效地產生一個項目，它可以取得該項目的貿易與其他國家可以。這就是所謂的專業化的國際貿易。
讓我們來一個簡單的例子。 A國和乙國毛衣都生產棉花和葡萄酒。 A國生產10毛衣和六瓶葡萄酒，而乙國生產6毛衣和10瓶葡萄酒一年。既可以產生，共有16個單位。 A國，但是，需要3個小時生產10毛衣和兩小時內產生的6瓶葡萄酒（共5個小時） 。 B國，另一方面，需要一小時生產10毛衣和三個小時的生產六瓶葡萄酒（共4個小時） 。
但是這兩個國家認識到，他們可以生產更多的是側重於這些產品，他們具有相對優勢。 A國然後開始只生產葡萄酒和乙國只生產棉花毛衣。每個國家現在可以創建一個專門的產出20個單位，每年的貿易同等比例的兩種產品。因此，每個國家現在已進入20個單位的這兩種產品。
我們可以看到那兩個國家的機會成本，生產這兩種產品是大於成本的專業。更具體而言，每個國家的機會成本，生產16單位都毛衣和葡萄酒為20單位的兩種產品（交易）。專業化降低其機會成本，因此，最大限度地提高其效率獲取他們所需要的貨物。隨著更多的供應，每個產品的價格將下降，從而有利於最終消費者以及。
請注意，在上面的例子中，國家B可以同時生產葡萄酒和棉花比國家更有效的（更少的時間）。這就是所謂的絕對優勢，乙國可能是因為較高的技術水平。然而，根據國際貿易理論，即使一個國家擁有絕對優勢，另外，它仍然可以受益於專業化。（審查其中的一些經濟概念，請參閱經濟學基礎知識教程。 ）
其他可能的好處的交易在全球范圍內
國際貿易的結果，不僅提高了效率，而且也使國家參與全球經濟，鼓勵的機會，外國直接投資（ FDI ） ，這是的金額，個人投資於外國公司和其他資產。從理論上講，經濟增長因此可以更有效，也更容易成為有競爭力的經濟參與者。
為接受政府，外國直接投資是一種手段，外匯和專門知識可以進入該國。這些提高就業水平，從理論上講，導致經濟增長在國內生產總值。為投資者，外國直接投資提供了公司擴張和增長，這意味著更高的收入。
自由貿易與保護主義
至於其他的理論，有反對意見。國際貿易有兩種截然不同的看法程度的控制放在貿易：自由貿易和保護主義。自由貿易是簡單的兩種理論：一種放任自流的方式，沒有任何的貿易限制。主要的想法是，供應和需求的因素，在全球范圍經營，將確保發生生產效率。因此，沒有什麼需要做，以保護或促進貿易和市場力量的增長，因為這樣做將自動。
與此相反，保護主義認為調節國際貿易重要的是要確保市場的正常運作。主張這一理論認為，市場的低效率可能妨礙國際貿易的利益，他們的目的是引導市場相應。保護主義存在於許多不同的形式，但最常見的是關稅，補貼和配額。這些戰略企圖，以糾正任何效率不高在國際市場上。
結論
因為它開辟了專門的機會，因此更有效地利用資源，國際貿易的潛力最大限度地發揮一個國家的能力，以生產和收購貨物。反對者的全球自由貿易的主張，但是，國際貿易仍然允許效率低下離開發展中國家的損害。可以肯定的是，全球經濟正處於不斷的變化，因為它的發展，也必須在其所有與會者。